Lion

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The lion (Panthera leo) is a member of the family Felidae and one of four "big cats" in the genus Panthera. Reaching up to 225 kg (500 lb), the lion is eclipsed in size by the tiger amongst felines^[3], and both are significantly larger than any other cat. Although lions were once widespread throughout much of Africa, Asia, and Europe, they currently exist in the wild only in sub-Saharan Africa, with a critically endangered remnant population in India (mostly in the northwest of the latter^[4]). As a whole, the species is listed as "vulnerable"; it has seen a drastic decline in numbers in its African range.^[2] A varying number of subspecies have been recognized, with consensus settling on seven. One, the Barbary Lion is extinct in the wild though an unknown number of individuals remain in captivity. Several other prehistoric subspecies of lions ranged from across Eurasia and the Americas in the Upper Pleistocene period, from around 700,000 years ago until disappearing around the end of the last glaciation, about 10,000 years ago.

In the wild, lions live for approximately 10–14 years, while in captivity they can live over 20 years. Today lions are found only in tropical climates, but during the Ice age, they penetrated as far north as the Bering land bridge. They typically range across savanna and grassland, although they may take to bush and forest. It is an apex and keystone predator. Unusually for a cat, lions hunt together. Groups of female lions typically bring down prey, mostly large ungulates. The lion pride consists of related females and offspring and a small number of resident males. Lions are territorial and the pride, though not strictly hierarchical, is dominated by an adult male or coalition of males.

The male lion is highly distinctive and usually instantly recognized by its mane. The lion, particularly the face of the male, is one of the most widely recognized animal symbols in human culture. It has been extensively depicted on sculptures, in paintings, on national flags and in films, among other figments of culture.

[edit] Naming and etymology

The Lion's name, similar in many languages, derives from the Latin leo,^[5] and before that the Ancient Greek leōn/λεων.^[6] The Hebrew word lavi (לָבִיא) may also be related,^[7] as well as the Ancient Egyptian rw.^[8] It was one of the many species originally described, as Felis leo, by Linnaeus in his 18th century work, Systema Naturae.^[9]

The generic component of its scientific designation, Panthera leo, is often presumed to derive from Greek pan- ("all") and ther ("beast"), but this may be a folk etymology. Although it came into English through the classical languages, panthera is probably of East Asian origin, meaning "the yellowish animal," or "whitish-yellow".^[10]

[edit] Physical characteristics

The lion is a large and muscular feline with a compact build. With short, powerful legs, a strong jaw, and long canine teeth, the lion can bring down and kill large prey.^[11] Lion coloration varies from light buff to yellowish, reddish or dark ochraceous brown. The color of the manes varies from blond to black. The underparts are generally lighter and the tail tuft is black.

Average listed weights for the male lion are between 150–225 kg (330–500 lb), and 120–150 kg (260–330 lb) for females.^[12] Nowell and Jackson report average weights of 181 kg for males and 126 kg for females.^[13] Head and body length is 170–250 cm (5 ft 7 in–8 ft 2 in) in males and 140–175 cm (4 ft 7 in–5 ft 9 in) in females; shoulder height is about 123 cm (4 ft) in males and 100 cm (3 ft 3 in) in females. The tail length is 70–100 cm (2 ft 3 in–3 ft 3 in).^[14] The tail ends in a hairy tuft. The tuft conceals a spine, approximately 5 mm long, formed of the final sections of tail bone fused together. The lion is the only felid to have tuffed tail and the function of the tuft and spine are unknown. In the wild, lions live up to 16 years of age, while in captivity they can live ten years longer.^[11]

[edit] Mane

The mane of the male lion, unique amongst cats, is one of the most distinct characteristics of the species. The presence, absence, color, and size of the mane is associated with sexual maturity, climate and testosterone production.^[15] Research in Tanzania suggests mane darkness correlates to nutrition and testosterone, and that mane length signals fighting success in male-male relationships; darker-maned individuals may have longer reproductive lives and higher offspring survival, although they suffer in the hottest months of the year.^[16] It is possible that lionesses more actively solicit mating with heavily maned lions in prides led by a coalition of 2 or 3 males.^{[citation needed]}

Maneless lions have been reported in Senegal and Tsavo East National Park in Kenya, and the original male white lion from Timbavati was also maneless. Castrated lions have minimal manes. Manelessness is also found in inbred lion populations; inbreeding also results in poor fertility.^[17]

Scientists once believed that the distinct status of some subspecies could be justified by morphology, including the size of the mane. Morphology was used to identify subspecies such as the Barbary lion and Cape Lion. Research has suggested, however, that various extrinsic factors influence the color and size of a lion's mane, such as the ambient temperature.^[16] The cooler ambient temperature in European and North American zoos, for example, can result in a heavy mane. Thus the mane is an inappropriate marker for identifying subspecies.^[18][19]

[edit] Biology and behaviour

[edit] Hunting and diet

Female lions usually hunt at night or dawn and in packs. Their prey consists mainly of larger mammals, with a preference for wildebeests, impalas, zebras, buffalos, giraffes, and warthogs. Notable exceptions to a lion's usual diet include buffalo bulls in their prime and very large, fully grown male giraffes.^[20] Many other species are hunted based on availability, mainly ungulates of a weight between 50 and 300 kg, like kudu, hartebeest, gemsbok and eland in Africa or nilgai, wild boars and several deer species in India. Occasionally they take relatively small species like Thomson's gazelles or springboks. Very large species such as the hippopotamus, the rhinoceros and the elephant are generally avoided due to the danger they present to lions or the effort required to capture them.^[21] In some areas, lions specialise on rather atypical prey-species; this is the case at the Savuti river, where they constantly prey on young elephants.^[22] It is reported that the lions, driven by extreme hunger, started taking down baby elephants, then moved on to adolescents and occasionally fully grown adults.^[23] Lions will even kill other predators such as leopards, cheetahs, hyenas and wild dogs. An adult female lion requires about 5 kg (11 lb) of meat per day, a male about 7 kg (15.4 lb).^[24]

Young lions first attempt to hunt at around three months of age, though generally not effectively until they are two years old.^{[citation needed]} Lions can reach speeds of 50 mph,^[25] though only for short bursts, so they have to be quite nearby their prey before starting the attack. They sneak up to the victim until they reach a distance of about 30 m (98 feet) or less. Usually several lions work together and encircle the herd from different points. The attack is short and powerful, the lion attempting to catch the victim with a fast rush and final leap. The prey is usually killed by strangulation.^[26]

Because lions hunt in open spaces where they are easily seen by their prey, cooperative hunting increases the likelihood of a successful hunt; this is especially true with larger species. Teamwork also enables them to defend their prey more easily against other large predators like hyenas, which can be attracted by vultures over kilometers in open savannas. Lionesses do most of the hunting; males attached to prides do not usually participate, except in the case of large animals such as buffalo. In group hunts, each lioness has a favored position in the group, either stalking prey on the "wing" then attacking, or moving a smaller distance in the centre of the group and capturing prey in flight from other lionesses.^[27]

[edit] Reproduction

Lions do not mate at any specific time of year, and the females are polyestrous.^[28] Like other cats, the male lion's penis has spines which point backwards. Upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina, which may cause ovulation. Furthermore, cats are superfecund; that is, a female may mate with more than one male when she is in heat, meaning different cubs in a litter may have different fathers.^{[citation needed]} During a mating bout, which could last several days, the couple frequently copulate twenty to forty times a day and are likely to forgo hunting. In captivity, lions reproduce very well.

The average gestation period is around 110 days,^[29] the female giving birth to a litter of one to four cubs. Lionesses in a pride will synchronize their reproductive cycles so that they cooperate in the raising and suckling of the young, who suckle indiscriminately from any or all of the nursing females in the pride. Cubs are weaned after six to seven months. In the wild, competition for food is fierce, and as many as 80% of the cubs will die before the age of two.^{[citation needed]}

When one or more new males take over a pride and oust the previous master(s), the conquerors often kill any remaining cubs.^[30] This is explained by the fact that the females would not become fertile and receptive until the cubs grow up or die. The male lions reach maturity at about 3 years of age and are capable of taking over another pride at 4–5 years old. They begin to age, and thus weaken, at around 8. This leaves a short window for their own offspring to be born and mature—the fathers have to procreate as soon as they take over the pride. The lioness will often attempt to defend her cubs fiercely from a usurping male, but such actions are rarely successful, as he usually kills all the previous top male's cubs that are less than two years old and the female is much lighter and has less strength than the male. However, success is more likely when a group of 3 or 4 mothers within the pride join forces against one male.^[30]

One scientific study reports that both males and females may interact homosexually.^[31][32] Male lions pair-bond for a number of days and initiate homosexual activity with affectionate nuzzling and caressing, leading to mounting and thrusting. A study found that about 8% of mountings have been observed to occur with other males, while female pairings are held to be fairly common in captivity but have not been observed in the wild.

[edit] Social behavior

Lions are predatory carnivores who manifest two types of social organization. Some are residents, living in groups, called prides. The pride consists of (usually around five or six) related females, their cubs of both sexes, and a group of one to four males known as a coalition who mate with the adult females. Others are nomads, ranging widely and moving sporadically, either singularly or in pairs.^{[citation needed]}

Being smaller and more agile than males, and lacking the conspicuous mane, lionesses do the pride's hunting, while the stronger males patrol the territory and protect the pride. When resting, lions seem to enjoy fellowship by touching, head rubbing, licking and purring. With food, each lion looks out for itself. Squabbling and fighting are common, with adult males usually eating first, followed by the females and then the cubs.^{[citation needed]}

Why sociality—the most pronounced in any cat species—has developed in lions is the subject of much debate. Increased hunting success appears an obvious reason, but this is less than sure upon examination: coordinated hunting does allow for more successful predation, but also ensures that non-hunting "cheaters" reduce per capita caloric intake. Other benefits include possible kin selection (better to share food with a related lion than with a stranger), protection of the young, maintenance of territory, and individual insurance against injury and hunger.^[13]

Both males and females will defend the pride against intruders. Some individual lions consistently lead the defense against intruders, while others lag behind.^[33] These “laggards” are not punished by leaders. Possibly laggards provide other services to the group so that leaders forgive them.^[34] An alternative hypothesis is that there is some reward associated with being a leader who fends off intruders.^[35]

Typically, males will not tolerate outside males, and females will not tolerate outside females. Males are expelled from the pride or leave on their own when they reach maturity.

Lions spend much of their time resting. They are inactive for about 20 hours per day.^[3]

[edit] Population and distribution

In relatively recent times the habitat of lions spanned the southern parts of Eurasia, ranging from Greece to India, and most of Africa except the central rainforest-zone and the Sahara desert. The last lions in Europe died out in historic times. In the Caucasus, their last European outpost, a population of the Asiatic lion survived until the 10th century.^[36] Between the late 19th and early 20th century they also became extinct in North Africa and the Middle East. Now, most lions live in eastern and southern Africa, and their numbers are rapidly decreasing. Currently, estimates of the African lion population range between 16,000 and 30,000 living in the wild^[3], down from early 1990s estimates that ranged as high as 100,000; increased contact with human development is cited as the primary cause.^[37] The remaining populations are often geographically isolated from each other, which can lead to inbreeding, and consequently, a lack of genetic diversity.

The Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica), which in historical times ranged from Turkey to India and from the Caucasus to Yemen, was eradicated from Palestine by the Middle Ages and from most of the rest of Asia after the arrival of readily available firearms in the 18th century. By the late 19th century the lion had disappeared from Turkey,^[38][39] while the last sighting of a live Asiatic Lion in Iran was in 1941 (between Shiraz and Jahrom, Fars province). In 1944, the corpse of a lioness was found on the banks of Karun river, Khuzestan province, Iran. There are no subsequent reliable reports from Iran.^[40] The subspecies now survives only in and around the Gir Forest of northwestern India. About 300 lions live in a 1412 km² (558 square miles) sanctuary in the state of Gujarat, which covers most of the forest. Their numbers remain stable.

Until the late Pleistocene (about 10,000 years ago), lions were also found in the Americas and in northern Eurasia. The most famous of these prehistoric subspecies were the Cave Lion (Panthera leo spelaea) and the American Lion (Panthera leo atrox) (not to be confused with the Cougar, Puma concolor, also known as the Mountain Lion).

[edit] Taxonomy and evolution

The oldest fossil record of a cat strongly resembling a lion is known from Laetoli in Tanzania and is perhaps 3.5 million years old. Some scientists identify the material as Panthera leo. These records are not well-substantiated, and all that can be said is that they pertain to a Panthera-like felid. The oldest confirmed records of Panthera leo in Africa are about 2 million years younger.^[41] The closest relatives of the lion are the other Panthera species, by name the tiger, the jaguar and the leopard. Morphological and genetic studies reveal, that the tiger was the first of these recent species to demerge from the other. About 1.9 million years ago the Jaguar demerged from the remaining group, which contained ancestors of the leopard and lion. The Lion and leopard subsequently separated about 1 to 1.25 million years ago from each other.^[42]

700,000 years ago, Panthera leo appeared in Europe for the first time with the subspecies Panthera leo fossilis at Isernia in Italy. From this lion derived the later Cave lion (Panthera leo spelaea), which appeared about 300,000 years ago. During the upper Pleistocene the lion spread to North and South America, and developed into Panthera leo atrox, the American lion.^[43]

Lions were common in northern Eurasia and America during the upper Pleistocene, but died out there at the end of the last glaciation, about 10,000 years ago.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Subspecies

Traditionally 12 recent subspecies of lion were recognized. The major differences between these subspecies are location, mane appearance, size and distribution. Because these characteristics are very insignificant and show a high individual variability, most of these forms were debatable and probably invalid.^[44] Today usually only eight subspecies are accepted.^[18][45] But one of them, the Cape lion formerly described as Panthera leo melanochaita is probably invalid.^[18] Even the remaining seven subspecies might be too much, mitochondrial variation in recent African lions is modest, what suggests that all sub-Saharan lions could be considered a single subspecies, possibly divided in two main clades: one to the west of the Great Rift Valley and the other to the east. Lions from Tsavo in Eastern Kenya genetically differ minimally from lions in Transvaal (South Africa), but markedly from those in the Aberdare Range in Western Kenya.^[46][47]

[edit] Recent

Seven recent subspecies are recognized today:

• P. l. persica, known as the Asiatic- or South Asian, Persian or Indian lion was once widespread from Turkey, across the Middle East, to Pakistan, India and even Bangladesh. However large prides and daylight activity made it easier to poach than tigers or leopards; now around 300 currently exist in and near the Gir Forest of India.
• P. l. leo, known as the Barbary lion, is extinct at least in the wild and was believed to be extinct in captivity. This was the largest of the Lion subspecies, which ranged from Morocco to Egypt. The last wild Barbary lion was killed in Morocco in 1922 due to excessive hunting. Barbary Lions were kept by Roman emperors to take part in the gladiator arenas. Roman notables, including Sulla, Pompey, and Julius Caesar, often ordered the mass slaughter of Barbary lions—up to 400 at a time.^[48]
• P. l. senegalensis, known as the West African lion, is found in Western Africa, from Senegal to Nigeria.
• P. l. azandica, known as the North East Congo lion, is found in the Northeastern parts of the Congo.
• P. l. nubica, known as the East African- or Massai lion, occurs in East Africa, from Ethiopia and Kenya to Tanzania and Mozambique.
• P. l. bleyenberghi, known as the Southwest African- or Katanga lion. South western Africa, Zimbabwe, Angola, Katanga (Zaire).
• P. l. krugeri, known as the Southeast African- or Transvaal lion, is found in the Transvaal region of South eastern Africa, including Kruger National Park.

[edit] Prehistoric

Besides these subspecies there are also some prehistoric ones.

• P. l. atrox, known as the American lion or North American cave lion, was abundant in the Americas from Alaska to Peru in the Pleistocene Period until about 10,000 years ago. This form as well as the cave lion are sometimes considered to represent separate species, but recent phylogenetic studies lead to suggest, that they are in fact subspecies of the lion (Panthera leo). ^[45] One of the largest lion subspecies to have existed, its body length is estimated to have been 1.6–2.5 m (5–8 ft).^[49]
• P. l. fossilis, known as the Early Middle Pleistocene European cave lion, flourished about 500,000 years ago; fossils have been recovered from Germany and Italy. It was larger than today's African lions, with a maximum head and body length of 2.40 m (8 ft).^{[citation needed]}
• P. l. spelaea, known as the European cave lion, Eurasian cave lion or Upper Pleistocene European cave lion occurred in Eurasia 300,000 to 10,000 years ago.^[45] It is known from Paleolithic cave paintings, ivory carvings, and clay busts, indicating it had protruding ears, tufted tails, faint tiger-like stripes, and that at least some males had a "ruff" or primitive mane around their neck.^{[citation needed]}
• P. l. vereshchagini, known as the East Siberian- or Beringian cave lion, was found in Yakutia (Russia), Alaska (USA), and the Yukon Territory (Canada). Analysis of skulls and mandibles of this lion demonstrate that it is distinct—larger than the European cave lion and smaller than the American cave lion with differing skull proportions.^[50][51]

[edit] Dubious

• P. l. melanochaita, known as the Cape lion, became extinct in the wild around 1860. Results of mitochondrial DNA research do not support the status as a distinct subspecies. It seems probable that the Cape lion was only the southernmost population of the extant southern African lion.^[18]
• P. l. sinhaleyus, known as the Sri Lanka lion, appears to have become extinct around 39,000 years ago. It is only known from two teeth found in deposits at Kuruwita. Based on these teeth, P. Deraniyagala erected this subspecies in 1939.^[52]
• P. l. europaea, known as the European lion; Status as subspecies is unconfirmed. (Probably identical with Panthera leo persica or Panthera leo spelea.) Extinct around 100 due to persecution and over-exploitation. Inhabited the Balkans, the Italian Peninsula, southern France and the Iberian Peninsula. It was a very popular object of hunting among Romans, Greeks and Macedonians.
• P. l. youngi or Panthera youngi , known as the North-Eastern Pleistocene China cave lion, 350,000 years ago, relationship to the extant lion subspecies is obscure. Represents probably a distinct species.

• P. l. maculatus, known as the Marozi or Spotted lion, is sometimes believed to be a distinct subspecies, but may be an adult lion that has retained its juvenile spotted pattern. If it was a subspecies in its own right, rather than a small number of aberrantly colored individuals, it has been extinct since 1931. A less likely identity is a natural leopard/lion hybrid commonly known as a leopon.^[53]

[edit] Variations

A number of natural variations have been observed in lion populations, some involving hybridization, with tigers. Some of these variations have been encouraged by captive breeding.

[edit] White lions

Main article: White lion

Although rare, white lions are occasionally encountered in and around the Kruger National Park, South Africa. Their unusual color is due to a recessive gene. A white lion has a disadvantage in regards to hunting: it can be detected by its color, unlike the regular lion which camouflages with its surroundings. White lions are born almost pure white without the normal camouflaging spots seen in lion cubs. Their color gradually darkens to cream or ivory color, known as blonde.

[edit] Hybridization

Further information: Panthera hybrid, liger and tigon

Lions have also been known to breed with tigers (most often Amur and Bengal) to create hybrids called ligers and tigons. They have also been crossed with leopards to produce leopons and jaguars to produce jaglions. The marozi is reputedly a spotted lion or a naturally occurring leopon, while the Congolese spotted lion is a complex lion/jaguar/leopard hybrid called a lijagulep. Such hybrids were once commonly bred in zoos, but this is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conserving species and subspecies. Hybrids are still bred in private menageries and in zoos in China.

The liger is a cross between a male lion and a tigress. Because the lion sire passes on a growth-promoting gene, but the corresponding growth-inhibiting gene from the female lion is absent, ligers grow far larger than either parent. They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species (spots and stripes on a sandy background). Male ligers are sterile, but female ligers are often fertile. Males have about a 50% chance of having a mane, but if they grow one the mane will be modest, around 50% again of a pure lion mane.

The less common tigon is a cross between the lioness and the male tiger. Because the male tiger does not pass on a growth-promoting gene and the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene, tigons are often relatively small, only weighing up to 150 kilograms (350 lb), which is about 20% smaller than lions. Like ligers, they have physical and behavioural traits from both parental species and males are sterile.

[edit] Conservation status

The Lion is considered vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, while the Asiatic subspecies is Critically Endangered. The total population of wild lions dragged from perhaps 400,000 in 1950 to an estimated size of 16,500–47,000 in 2002-2004.^[2]

The lion population in the region of West Africa is isolated from lion populations of Central Africa, with little or no exchange of breeding individuals. The number of mature individuals in West Africa is estimated by two separate recent surveys at 850–1,160 (2002/2004). There is disagreement over the size of the largest individual population in West Africa: the estimates range from 100 to 400 lions in Burkina Faso's Arly-Singou ecosystem.^[2]

Conservation of both African and Asian Lions has required the setup and maintenance of National Parks and Game Reserves; among the best known are Etosha National Park in Namibia, Serengeti National Park in Tansania and Kruger National Park in eastern South Africa. Outside these areas, the issues arising from lions interaction with cattle and people usually results in the elimination of the former.

Lions are vulnerable to the Canine distemper virus (CDV), which is spread though domestic dogs and other carnivores; an outbreak in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania, in 1994 resulted in many lions exhibiting neurological features such as seizures, and succumbing.^[54]

In India, the last refuge of the Asiatic Lion is the 1,412 km² (558 square miles) Gir Forest National Park in western India which had about 359 lions (as of April 2006). As in Africa, numerous human habitations are close by with the resultant problems between lions, livestock, locals and wildlife officials.^[55] The Asiatic Lion Reintroduction Project plans to establish a second independent population of Asiatic Lions at the Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh.^[56] It is important to start a second population to serve as a life insurance for the last surviving Asiatic Lions and to help develop and maintain genetic diversity enabling the species to survive.

The former popularity of the Barbary Lion as a zoo animal has meant that scattered lions in captivity are likely to be descended from Barbary Lion stock. This includes twelve lions at Port Lympne Wild Animal Park in Kent, England that are descended from animals owned by the King of Morocco.^[57] Another eleven animals believed to be Barbary lions were found in Addis Ababa zoo, descendants of animals owned by Emperor Haile Selassie. WildLink International, in collaboration with Oxford University, launched their ambitious International Barbary Lion Project with the aim of identifying and breeding Barbary lions in captivity for eventual reintroduction into a National Park in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco.

[edit] Lions and humans

[edit] Attacks on humans

While lions usually do not attack humans, some (usually male) lions seem to seek out human prey. Well-publicized cases include the Tsavo maneaters and the Mfuwe man-eater. In both cases the hunters who killed the lions wrote books detailing the animals' predatory behavior. The Mfuwe and Tsavo incidents bear similarities: the lions in both incidents were larger than normal, lacked manes, and seemed to suffer from tooth decay. Some have speculated that they might belong to an unclassified species of lion, or that they may have been sick and could not have easily caught prey.^{[citation needed]}

The infirmity theory, including tooth decay, is not favored by all researchers. An analysis of teeth and jaws of man-eating lions in museum collections suggests that, while tooth decay may explain some incidents, prey depletion in human-dominated areas is a more likely cause of lion predation on humans.^[58] In their analysis of Tsavo and man-eating generally, Peterhans and Gnoske acknowledge that sick or injured animals may be more prone to man-eating, but that the behavior is "not unusual, nor necessarily 'aberrant'" where the opportunity exists; if inducements such as access to livestock or human corpses are present, lions will regularly prey upon human beings. The authors note that the relationship is well-attested amongst other pantherines and primates in the paleontological record.^[59]

The lion's proclivity for man-eating has been systematically examined. American and Tanzanian scientists report that man-eating behavior in rural areas of Tanzania increased greatly from 1990 to 2005. At least 563 villagers were attacked and many eaten over this period—a number far exceeding the more famed "Tsavo" incidents of a century earlier. The incidents occurred near Selous National Park in Rufiji District and in Lindi Province near the Mozambican border. While the expansion of villagers into bush country is one concern, the authors argue that conservation policy must mitigate the danger because, in this case, conservation contributes directly to human deaths. Cases in Lindi have been documented where lions seize humans from the center of substantial villages.^[60]

Author Robert R. Frump wrote in The Man-eaters of Eden, published in 2006, that Mozambican refugees crossing Kruger National Park at night in South Africa regularly are attacked and eaten by the lions there. Park officials conceded that man-eating is a problem there. Frump believes thousands may have been killed in the decades after apartheid sealed the park and forced the refugees to cross the park at night. Mozambicans had for nearly a century before the border was sealed regularly walked across the park in daytime with little harm.^[61]

Packer estimates more than 200 Tanzanians are killed each year by lions, crocodiles, elephants, hippos and snakes, and that the numbers could be double that amount. Lions are thought to kill about 70 humans per year at least in Tanzania, Packer and Ikanda note. Packer and Ikanda are among the few conservationists who believe western conservation efforts must take account of these matters not just because of ethical concerns about human life, but also for the long term success of conservation efforts and lion preservation.

A man-eating lion was killed by game scouts in Southern Tanzania in April 2004. It is believed to have killed and eaten at least 35 people in a series of incidents covering several villages in the Rufiji Delta coastal region.^[62][63] Dr Rolf D. Baldus, the GTZ wildlife programme coordinator, is reported to have commented that it was likely that the lion preyed on humans because it had a large abscess underneath a molar which was cracked in several places. He further commented that "This lion probably experienced a lot of pain, particularly when it was chewing." ^[64] GTZ is the German development cooperation agency and has been working with the Tanzanian government on wildlife conservation for nearly two decades. Like in other cases this lion was large, lacked a mane, and had a tooth problem.

The "All-Africa" record of man-eating generally is considered to be not Tsavo, but the lesser known incidents in the late 1930s through the late 1940s in what was then Tanganyika (now Tanzania). George Rushby, game warden and professional hunter, eventually dispatched the pride, which over three generations, is thought to have killed and eaten 1,500 to 2,000 in what is now Njombe district.

Tsavo and Patterson body counts vary from a confirmed 28 victims up to a possible 140. While some authors disparage the actual number, it should be kept in mind that Patterson kept firm records of skilled-labor killed by the lions, not indigenous Africans. The toll could easily have been much higher.

[edit] In captivity

[edit] Baiting and taming

Main articles: Lion-baiting and Lion taming

Lion-baiting is a blood sport involving the baiting of lions in combat with other animals, usually dogs. Records of it exist in ancient times through until the 17th century. It was finally banned in England in 1825.

Lion taming refers to the practice of taming lions generally for entertainment, either as part of an established circus or as an individual act, such as Siegfried & Roy. The term is also often used for the taming and display of other big cats such as tigers, leopards and cougars. The now iconic lion tamer's chair was possibly first used by American Clyde Beatty (1903–1965).^[65]

[edit] Cultural depictions

For more details on this topic, see Cultural depictions of lions.

The Lion has been an icon of humanity for thousands of years, appearing in cultures across Europe, Asia, and Africa. Despite incidents of attacks on humans, lions have enjoyed a positive depiction in culture as strong but noble. A consistent depiction is their representation as "king of the jungle" or "king of the beasts"; hence, the lion has been a popular symbol of royalty and stateliness,^[66] as well as a symbol of bravery. Richard I of England, for instance, was known as Richard the Lionheart.^[66] (Lionheart would later be adopted as an album title by Kate Bush, Maddy Prior, and Saxon, as well as in films and computer games.)

Representations of lions date back some 15,000 years to the earliest stone age cave paintings: two lions were depicted mating in the Chamber of Felines in the Lascaux caves. Ancient Egypt venerated the lion, with the Sphinx and the lion-headed deity Sekhmet;^[66] Maahes and Dedun were Egyptian deities in full lion form. The Nemean Lion was symbolic in Ancient Greece and Rome, represented as the constellation and zodiac sign Leo, and described in mythology, where its skin was borne by the hero Heracles.^[67]

The lion was a prominent symbol in both the Old Babylonian and Neo-Babylonian Empire periods. The classic Babylonian lion motif, found as a statue, carved or painted on walls, is often referred to as the striding lion of Babylon. It is in Babylon that the biblical Daniel is said to have been delivered from the lion's den. Such symbolism was appropriated by Saddam Hussein's regime in Iraq for their Lion of Babylon tank, with the technology adapted from a Russian model.

Narasimha ("man-lion") (also spelt as Narasingh, Narasinga) is described as an incarnation (avatara) of Vishnu within the Puranic texts of Hinduism and is worshiped as "Lion God" thus Indian or Asiatic Lions which were commonly found throughout most of India in ancient times are considered sacred by all Hindus in India.

Singh is an ancient Indian vedic name meaning "Lion" (Asiatic Lion), dating back over 2000 years to ancient India. It was originally only used by Rajputs a Hindu Kshatriya or military caste in India. After the birth of the Khalsa brotherhood in 1699, the Sikhs also adopted the name "Singh" due to the wishes of Guru Gobind Singh. Along with millions of Hindu Rajputs today, it is also used by over 20 million Sikhs worldwide^[68][69].

Found famously on numerous Flags and Coat of Arms all across Asia and Europe, the Asiatic Lions also stand firm on the National Emblem of India.

The lion is symbolic for the Sinhalese,^[70] Sri Lanka's ethnic majority; the term derived from the Indo-Aryan Sinhala, meaning the "lion people" or "people with lion blood", while a sword wielding lion is the central figure on the national flag of Sri Lanka.^[71]

In the medieval period in Europe, lions were frequently depicted on coats of arms, either as a device on shields themselves, or as supporters. The formal language of heraldry, called blazon, employs French terms to describe the images precisely. Such descriptions specified whether lions or other creatures were "rampant" or "passant", that is whether they were rearing or crouching.^[72]

Lions continue to feature in modern tales, from the messianic Aslan in the The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe and following books from the Narnia series written by C.S. Lewis,^[73] to the comedic Cowardly Lion in the The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.^[74] The word Aslan is Turkish for lion.

The advent of moving pictures saw the continued presence of lion symbolism; one of the most iconic and widely recognised lions is Leo the Lion, the mascot for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) studios, which has been in use since the 1920s.^[75] The 1960s saw the appearance of what is possibly the most famous lioness, the Kenyan animal Elsa in the movie Born Free,^[76] based on the true-life international bestselling book of the same title.^[77] The lion's role as King of the Beasts has been utilized in cartoons, from the 1950s manga which gave rise to the first Japanese colour TV animation series, Kimba the White Lion, Leonardo Lion of King Leonardo and his Short Subjects, both from the 1960s, up to the 1994 Disney animated feature film The Lion King, which also featured the popular song The Lion Sleeps Tonight in its soundtrack.

The lion is a common symbol or epithet for sporting teams, from national soccer teams such as England, Scotland and Singapore to famous clubs such as the Detroit Lions^[78] of the NFL, Chelsea^[79] and Aston Villa of the English Premier League,^[80] (and the Premiership itself) to a host of smaller clubs around the world. Villa sport a Scottish Lion Rampant on their crest, as do Rangers and Dundee United of the Scottish Premier League.